Post by This One on Dec 15, 2010 20:03:28 GMT -5
A BASIC GUIDE TO GRAMMAR AND COMMON WRITTEN ERRORS
(Alternatively, A Grammar Nazi’s Manifesto.)
INTRODUCTION – A FOREWORD FROM THIS ONE
“This One’s done it now! Creating a basic grammar guide? She must think we’re all idiots! I don’t need a guide to tell me the difference between a noun and an adjective! How dare she underestimate my intelligence?!”
I realize this might be the sentiment among many of you, and I do realize that many of you have writing skills that are advanced far beyond the scope of this guide. However, I feel it would be beneficial for a site dubbed Elite Authors’ Board to have some sort of pool of writing tips available for new members, top posters, and admins alike. Therefore, out of the goodness of my heart, I have gone out of my way and used my precious time to painstakingly create this guide. (Oh, who am I kidding? I loved it! We Grammar Nazis draw satisfaction from this sort of thing, you know.)
I, in no way, claim to have perfect writing skills. Indeed, there are many people on this site who have far greater literary abilities than me. However, I also find it unacceptable that high school students, college students, and even college graduates continue to make such elementary mistakes as switching the words “then” and “than” on a regular basis. There is a difference between making a careless error or typo every once in awhile and in not having appropriate writing abilities for one’s age. I realize that grammar is not given the attention it deserves in English classes after elementary school and that today’s “text-talk” society has become lax about grammatical rules. This is not an excuse for laziness. Even with spell check programs, errors often slip by unnoticed, and what might be a minor mistake for some might completely throw off another’s understanding of a phrase. It is important, therefore, that an author also be an editor.
This guide is not meant to attack any one person in particular or to insult anyone in any way. As I’ve stated, I, myself, make mistakes quite frequently and will also benefit from this guide. This guide was merely created to expand knowledge and improve the quality of RPs and all written works posted here and elsewhere. If I have made any mistakes or left out a section that you feel would be important, please feel free to let me know.
-This One (a.k.a.: Your Friendly Neighborhood Grammar Nazi)
CONTENTS
I. Important Symbols for this Guide
II. Major Parts of Speech
III. Punctuation
IV. Contractions
V. Pronouns
VI. Ending Sentences with Prepositions
VII. Beginning Sentences with Conjunctions
VIII. Writing Out Numbers
IX. Common Typefaces
X. Homophones
XI. Various Misspellings and Misuses of Words and Phrases
XII. A Word from Ninmast
XIII. References
IMPORTANT SYMBOLS FOR THIS GUIDE
adj. – adjective
adv. – adverb
conj. – conjunction
int. – interjection
n. – noun
p.n. – pronoun
prep. – preposition
v. – verb
MAJOR PARTS OF SPEECH
• ADJECTIVE – Adjectives are words that describe nouns. They are the spice of language and include color, number, size, and other physical qualities.
- After travelling down the narrow corridor, the third door on the left opened to reveal a large, sunlit bedroom.
• ADVERB – Adverbs are used like adjectives, but they describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They do not describe nouns. They usually end in the suffix –ly, but not always.
- We were running carelessly through the parking lot.
- He does math well, but he doesn’t do it quickly.
• CONJUNCTION – “Conjunction Junction, what’s your function?” It’s exactly what you’d think it would be. Conjunctions are words that link two statements together.
- She was worried, for it was getting late and her brother had not come home.
- Not only was the food good, but it was also cheap.
• DETERMINER – Determiners specify which noun or nouns are being referred to. There are several types of determiners which include, but are not limited to, articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers.
- Articles – a, an, the
- Demonstratives – this, that, these, those
- Quantifiers – no, few, some, several, many, all, each, every
• INTERJECTION – Wow! What a neat part of speech! Interjections are exclamations used to convey emotion.
- Oh! How wonderful!
- Well, try not to think about it.
• NOUN – Nouns are people, places, objects, and ideas. They form the subjects of sentences. Proper nouns consist of the names of some places, people, companies, and objects. Proper nouns are always capitalized.
- Obama attended the summit in Washington to give his thoughts on the subject.
• PRONOUN – Pronouns are words used to take the place of nouns or other pronouns. Their main purpose is to reduce redundancy.
- She was promoted to CEO of the company and intends to lead it well.
• PREPOSITION – Prepositions tell relative location and order.
- The plane was above a certain altitude and we were able to move about the cabin.
- The plates are on the table.
• VERB – Verbs are words that describe actions of the past, actions in progress, and future actions.
- After hearing the phone, she ran inside to answer it.
**NOTE: Try to avoid starting sentences with the conjunctions “and”, “or”, and “but”. Though there are situations where it is acceptable, it will most often be incorrect. (See below for further detail.)
**NOTE: Avoid ending sentences with prepositions. (See below for further detail.)
**NOTE: Determiners are technically adjectives since they describe "which one".
**NOTE: The articles "a" and "an" must not be switched. Words that begin with vowel (A, E, I, O, U) sounds must have the article "an". Words that begin with consonant sounds (including the 'yoo' sound as in 'unicorn') must have the article "a".
PUNCTUATION
When we speak, we take natural rests and pauses and we use the pitch of our voice in certain ways to convey that we have finished a statement, that we are asking a question, etc. Punctuation is the written convention we use to mark these phenomena. Remember…
“Let’s eat Grandma!”
“Let’s eat, Grandma!”
…punctuation saves lives.
• APOSTROPHES [ ’ ] may be used to show possession or for forming contraction.
- Don’t tell me what to do.
- Sam’s dog is a retired racing greyhound.
• COLONS [ : ] are generally used to express cause and effect or to begin lists. They may be used to show the beginning of a direct quote. When dealing with time, colons separate units (hours, minutes, seconds, etc.).
- The reason is simple: The murderer was never in that room.
- I can speak three languages: English, French, and Portuguese.
- The meeting began at exactly 2:45.
• COMMAS [ , ] are used to separate things in a list and to connect two clauses (usually with a conjunction.) They also separate dialogue from non-dialogue parts of a sentence.
- We need to buy flour, eggs and sugar for the cake.
- She failed the test, but she managed to pass the class.
- “My name is Katie,” she said.
• DASHES [ – ] are used as parentheses or “super-commas”. They set apart certain parts of sentences, take the place of the word “to” in a series, and indicate a sudden stop in speech in dialogue.
- All of the companies – GM, Nissan, Toyota, and Mercedes-Benz – suffered.
- The Winter War (November 1939 – March 1940) led to territorial concessions.
- Under his breath, he mumbled, “Son of a— ”
• ELLIPSES [ … ] shows that part of a sentence or thought has been excluded. In dialogue, an ellipsis may represent a long pause or that a sentence has trailed off.
- “Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer … Or to take arms against a sea of troubles and by opposing end them.”
- “I’m not scared, but…”
• EXCLAMATION POINTS [ ! ] are used to intensify emotion in a sentence, usually denoting excitement, shock, and anger. They should be avoided in formal writing.
- Even the mayor was there to help!
- “You’re such an idiot!”
• HYPHENS [ - ] are used in creating compound words, in writing numbers over twenty, and for adding certain prefixes. Hyphens are contained within words, unlike dashes which are between different words.
- Fear the all-seeing eye.
- The painting is one hundred twenty-five years old.
- I enjoy studying the pre-Columbian era.
• INTERROBANGS [ ?! ] show questioning shock or anger. They are almost always used only in dialogue and informal first-person writing.
- “She said what?!”
• PARENTHESES [ () ] contain material that clarifies a sentence. If removed, a sentence should still make sense without the omitted information.
- The lost group (including the guide) was found completely unharmed two days later.
- They believed that these practices would lead to an improvement in health. (These notions have since been disproven.)
• PERIODS [ . ] are used for ending statements and commands and for abbreviating words. In dealing with numerals, a period is known as a decimal point and it separates the ones from the tenths place (or cents from dollars in monetary units).
- I like tennis.
- Finish your meal.
- Mr. Smith is tall.
- Your total is $3.95.
• QUESTION MARKS [ ? ] come at the end of direct questions.
- Where should the decorations be stored?
- “Are you sure?” she asked.
• QUOTATION MARKS [ “” ] are used to denote that a particular part of a sentence is a quote or is being spoken as dialogue. They are also used when referencing certain types of works, such as around song titles.
- “Man, this sucks!” he groaned. “Why can’t the test be later?”
- The professor wrote the word “stalwart” on the board and asked us to define it.
- “Never Gonna Give You Up” is really annoying.
• SEMICOLONS [ ; ] are used in place of conjunctive words to connect two independent clauses and to clarify things in a list.
- I didn’t go to school; I had the flu.
- He’s visited Seattle, Washington; Denver, Colorado; and Tampa, Florida.
**NOTE: When using apostrophes to form possession, if a noun already ends in an S, it is not necessary to add another S after the apostrophe.
- Alexis’ favorite color is blue.
- This site is called Elite Authors' Board.
**NOTE: Apostrophes are not needed for pluralizing dates and abbreviations.
- OBGYNs are paid well.
- He was born in the 1980s.
**NOTE: Apostrophes are NOT used in creating possessive pronouns when dealing with the pronoun “it”. (See below for further detail.)
- CORRECT - Its seats are leather. (The seats belonging to the car are leather.)
- CORRECT - It’s got leather seats. (It has got leather seats.)
- INCORRECT - It’s seats are leather. (It is seats are leather.)
**NOTE: If a quote is shortened and is not followed by another part of the passage, there will be four dots at the end of the sentence (an ellipsis and a period.)
**NOTE: A comma placed directly before the “and” in a list is known as an Oxford comma and is generally considered incorrect.
**NOTE: If a new paragraph starts in a long passage of dialogue by a single character, do not add quotation marks at the end of the first paragraph. Adding quotation marks here will signify that a new character has begun speaking.
CONTRACTIONS
A contraction is a shortened form of a word or more than one word using an apostrophe to substitute letters.
• TO BE
- I am = I’m
- You are = you’re
- (s)he is = (s)he’s
- We are = we’re
- They are = they’re
- It is = it’s
- That is = that’s
- What is = what’s
- When is = when’s
- Where is = where’s
- Who is = who’s
- Why is = why’s
- How is = how's
• WILL
- I will = I’ll
- You will = you’ll
- (s)he will = (s)he’ll
- We will = we’ll
- They will = they’ll
- It will = it’ll
- That will = that’ll
- What will = what’ll
- When will = when’ll
- Where will = where’ll
- Who will = who’ll
- Why will = why’ll
• WOULD/HAD
- I would = I’d
- You would = you’d
- (s)he would = (s)he’d
- We would = we’d
- They would = they’d
- It would = it’d
- That would = that’d
- What would = what’d
- When would = when’d
- Where would = where’d
- Who would = who’d
- Why would = why’d
• HAVE/HAS
- I have = I’ve
- You have = you’ve
- (s)he has = (s)he’s
- We have = we’ve
- They have = they’ve
- It has = it’s
- That has = that’s
- What has = what’s
- When has = when’s
- Where has = where’s
- Who has = who’s
- Why has = why’s
- Could have = could’ve
- Might have = might’ve
- Must have = must’ve
- Should have = should’ve
- Would have = would’ve
• NEGATIVES
- Are not = aren’t
- Cannot = can’t
- Could not = couldn’t
- Do not = don’t
- Does not = doesn’t
- Did not = didn’t
- Had not = hadn’t
- Has not = hasn’t
- Have not = haven’t
- Is not = isn’t
- Might not = mightn’t
- Must not = mustn’t
- Should not = shouldn’t
- Was not = wasn’t
- Were not = weren’t
- Will not = won’t
- Would not = wouldn’t
• OTHER
- How did = how'd
- It is = ‘tis (archaic)
- It is not = 'tisn't (archaic)
- It was = ‘twas (archaic)
- Let us = let's
- Madam = ma'am
- Of = o' (normally used in o'clock)
- Them = 'em (informal)
- You all = y’all (informal; should only be used in dialogue)
**NOTE: (See addendum on the use of “ain’t” from Ninmast.)
PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words that may take the place of nouns or other pronouns.
• PERSONAL PRONOUNS - SUBJECTIVE
- I own the car.
- You own the car.
- He owns the car.
- She owns the car.
- We own the car.
- You [guys] own the car.
- They own the car.
• PERSONAL PRONOUNS - OBJECTIVE
- The car belongs to me.
- The car belongs to you.
- The car belongs to him.
- The car belongs to her.
- The car belongs to us.
- The car belongs to you [guys].
- The car belongs to them.
• POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS – MODIFYING A NOUN
- My car.
- Your car.
- His car.
- Her car.
- Our car.
- Your car.
- Their car.
- Its seats.
• POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS – USED ALONE
- The car is mine.
- The car is yours.
- The car is his.
- The car is hers.
- The car is ours.
- The car is yours.
- The car is theirs.
- The seats are its.
• INTERROGATIVE
- Who wants to drive?
- I am the one who drives.
- With whom are you riding?
- I am riding with those whom I believe are sober.
- Of the two, which wants to drive?
- Ride with whomever you’d like.
- Whoever is driving needs the map.
…
**NOTE: “Whom” and “who” can easily be confused. To remember when each is appropriate, know that “whom” must be able to be replaced by an objective pronoun, and “who” must be able to be replaced by a subjective pronoun.
- With whom are you riding? … I am riding with him.
- Who is driving? … He is driving.
ENDING SENTENCES WITH PREPOSITIONS
“Who are you riding with?” “What did she die of?” “What are you listening to?” “Where do you come from?” They sound correct, don’t they? In fact, none of the sentences above are correct. “With”, “of”, “to”, and “from” are all prepositions and should not be used as the last word of a sentence. The correct forms of the previous sentences are as follow:
- With whom are you riding?
- Of what did she die?
- To what are you listening?
- From where do you come?
The above statements are all correct, yet it feels strange to arrange them this way. In daily conversation, most of us will use the incorrect forms that have the preposition located at the end simply because it is what we are used to hearing. Because of this, the proper form can feel awkward, making this error one of the trickiest to catch in writing. If you’re not sure how to form the correct sentences, try asking in a way that does not involve prepositions (“How did she die?” rather than “Of what did she die?”).
BEGINNING SENTENCES WITH CONJUNCTIONS
It is not always incorrect to begin a sentence with a conjunction, but before doing so, two questions should be asked:
1. Would the sentence still hold its meaning without the word?
2. Does the conjunction make sense in relation to the previous sentence?
“And”, “or”, and “but” are possibly the most questioned conjunctions. It is not prohibited to use them at the beginning of sentences, but it can be hard to tell when it is appropriate to use each. Consider using synonyms, like “however” or “conversely” instead of “but”, “otherwise” instead of “or”, and “also” or “furthermore” instead of “and”.
WRITING OUT NUMBERS
The rules of writing out numbers have never been solidified, it seems, but there are a few that seem to be widely agreed upon:
• Single digit numbers (0 – 9) should always be written out as words.
- I’m taking five classes this semester.
• Numbers greater than twenty should have a hyphen between the tens and ones place
- 39 – thirty-nine
- 78 – seventy-eight
• It is acceptable, but not necessary, to have the word “and” between the hundreds and tens place.
- 115 – one hundred fifteen/one hundred and fifteen
- 999 – nine hundred ninety-nine/nine hundred and ninety-nine
- 1,560 – one thousand five hundred sixty/one thousand five hundred and sixty
- 137,248 – one hundred thirty-seven thousand two hundred forty-eight/one hundred thirty-seven thousand two hundred and forty eight
• Ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) should always be written out in words.
- We came in first place at the race.
- The fifth step is the most important.
• Years should be written in numeric digits without commas between the thousands and hundreds place.
- He was born in 1989.
• Fractions should be hyphenated.
- 1/2 – one-half
- 3 7/10 – three and seven-tenths
• If a sentence contains a number written in words, the rest of the numbers in that sentence should also be written out as words.
- Between the seven of us, there were thirteen cans of soda.
• If there are two numbers in a row and it confuses the meaning of the sentence, the lesser number should be written out in words.
- Ten 20-year-olds are in my Calculus class.
- There are 15 one-pound bags on the table.
• If a sentence begins with a number, it should be written out in words.
- Thirty-three students are in this class.
- Four hundred was my highest score.
**NOTE: There may be exceptions for these rules depending on the type of writing. For example, it would be acceptable for recipes to contain single digit numerals (1 cup, 5 tbsp, etc.).
**NOTE: Technically, saying “and” between the ones and tens place changes the meaning to a decimal (like saying “point”), though it is not commonly used this way.
- Three hundred fifty-five – 355
- Three hundred and fifty-five – 300.55
COMMON TYPEFACES
A typeface is a special way of stylizing font to convey certain meanings or feelings. For RP sites like the EAB, there is a more relaxed structure for using these conventions. Some common typefaces include:
- ALL CAPS – When entire sentences are capitalized, it can be assumed that importance is being placed on the information. When dialogue is capitalized, it suggests that the speaker is shouting. This format is very informal.
- Bold – Writing words in bold, heavy, or black font generally serves the same purpose as writing them in all capital letters. It suggests that the importance of the bolded words is being stressed.
- Italics – Italics serve many purposes. A word may be italicized when it is an uncommon foreign word, when it is a title, when its importance is being stressed (as with capitalizing and bolding), or to show that something is being thought rather than spoken aloud.
- Underlining – Underlined words are usually titles.
**NOTE: Titles that should be italicized include novels, movies, plays, magazines, famous speeches, long poems, art pieces, musical albums, and vessels. Novels may also be underlined. Titles that should be put into quotation marks include songs, short stories, single chapters, articles, and television episodes. Some titles, including religious works and buildings, are only capitalized.
HOMOPHONES
Words that are spelled differently but sound the same are known as homophones. Some of the words listed below are not true homophones, but they have been listed because they may sound extremely similar in certain English dialects.
• Affect – Effect
- The strong imagery might affect one’s emotions. (v., to influence)
- The effect of the drug was almost immediate. (n., consequence)
• Aisle – Isle – I’ll
- The bride walks down the aisle. (n., row)
- The Isle of Man lies near Britain. (n., island)
- I’ll be back. (v., I will)
• Bare – Bear
- The tree is bare. (adj., empty)
- The bear is covered in fur. / He can’t bear the sadness. (n., animal; v., to carry)
• Brake – Break
- Step on the brake. / Brake the car. (n., stopping mechanism; v., to stop)
- Take a break. / Don’t break your wrist. (n., hiatus; v., to fracture)
• Buy – By – Bye
- He will buy a ticket. (v., to purchase)
- The dog is by the doghouse. (prep., near)
- “Bye, guys!” he said. (int., goodbye)
• Cents – Scents – Sense – Since
- It cost forty cents. (n., monetary unit)
- Beautiful scents were coming from the candle shop. (n., smells)
- That doesn’t make sense. / I lost my sense of smell. (n., intelligence; n., function)
- I’ve been lonely since you left. (prep., from when)
• Cite – Sight – Site
- Cite your sources. (v., to reference)
- My sight isn’t very good. / What a sight to behold! (n., ability to see; n., scene)
- The site was down for two days. / The site was empty. (n., webpage; n., location)
• Die – Dye
- It's not uncommon to die of chronic illness. (v., to stop living)
- The dye stained my hands. / They will dye the shirts blue. (n., pigment; v., to stain)
• Dual – Duel
- She has dual citizenship in both America and Canada. (adj., double)
- They fought in a duel. / They will duel. (n., battle; v., to fight)
• Hoarse – Horse
- His voice was hoarse. (adj., raspy)
- The horse is black. (n., pony)
• Lead – Led
- She’s got a lead pencil. / It’s made of lead. (adj., made of lead; n., metal)
- He led them away from the fire. (v., to guide)
• Pair – Pare – Pear
- She bought a pair of boots. / I will pair them by color. (n., two of something; v., to group into twos)
- Use the knife to pare the potato. (v., to peel)
- The pear is juicy. (n., fruit)
• Patience – Patients
- One must have patience. (n., persistence)
- The doctor does his best to keep his patients safe. (n., sick people)
• Peak – Peek – Pique
- It is very cold at the peak of the mountain. (n., summit)
- The cats peek around the corner. (v., to glance)
- Documentaries pique my interest. (v., to stimulate)
• Principal – Principle
- Sugar is the principal ingredient. / The principal gave me detention. (adj., main; n., director)
- Respect is a good principle to have. (n., code)
• Rain – Reign – Rein
- The rain is cold. / It will rain on Tuesday. (n., water droplets; v., to precipitate water)
- The king’s reign ended in 1786. / The new king would reign for thirty years. (n., period of rule; v., to preside over)
- Tug the rein to turn the horse. / Rein in your emotions. (n., harness; v., to keep in check)
• Secede – Succeed
- The South seceded from the rest of the States. (v., to break away)
- He’s the type to succeed at everything. (v., to do well)
• Than – Then
- There are more females than males. (conj., in comparison to)
- I’ll meet you then. / Eat your lunch, and then return the movie. (adv., at that time; adv., next)
• Their – There – They’re
- Their car is blue. (p.n., belonging to them)
- We live over there now. (p.n., that place)
- They’re going to France. (v., they are)
• To – Too – Two
- Walk to the park. / Give the paper to her. (prep., toward; prep., for)
- This is too much work. / I see it, too. (adv., excessively; adv., also)
- There are two birds on the wire. (adj., a pair of something)
• Vain – Vein
- She’s so vain that she won’t admit her error. (adj., arrogant)
- He was so angry that a vein bulged from his neck. (n., capillary)
• Vial – Vile
- The vial contained a magical potion. (n., bottle)
- Superman could not let the vile scheme take place. (adj., evil)
• Want - Wont - Won't
- I want to go to the movies. (v., to desire)
- Don't put off your work, as you're so wont to do. (adj., accustomed)
- I won't go with them. (v., will not)
• Who’s – Whose
- Who’s going to drive? (v., who is)
- The winner is Paul, whose skill was a huge advantage. / Whose jacket is this? (p.n., possessive of who)
VARIOUS MISSPELLINGS AND MISUSES OF WORDS AND PHRASES
Below is a collection of words and phrases I have seen used incorrectly in the EAB and elsewhere.
- INCORRECT - CORRECT
- alot - a lot
- all of the sudden - all of a sudden
- allready - already
- allright - alright
- Chow! [Bye!] - Ciao! (Italian; “Hi” or “Bye”)
- deers - deer
- [it] dose not - [it] does not
- eachother - each other
- extasy - ecstasy
- greatful - grateful
- heighth - height
- judgement - judgment
- Kapeesh? - Capisci? (Italian; “understand”)
- noone - no one
- sopost to - supposed to
- stomache - stomach
- theirself - oneself, itself, himself, herself, themselves
- theirselves - (see above)
- themself - (see above)
- untill - until
- upsidedown - upside down
- Vwalah!/Walah! - Voila! (French; “here it is”)
- ya’ll - y’all
**NOTE: The case may arise where a word has multiple correct spellings. This is usually a matter of difference between British and American English. Oftentimes, it is the ending of a word that is changed (--re becomes --er, --ise becomes --ize, etc.)
- BRITISH - AMERICAN
- aeroplane - airplane
- aluminium - aluminum
- anaemia - anemia
- analyse - analyze
- centre - center
- cheque - check
- colour - color
- disc - disk
- favourite - favorite
- flavour - flavor
- grey - gray
- honour - honor
- humour - humor
- kilometre - kilometer
- liquorice - licorice
- litre - liter
- mould - mold
- moustache - mustache
- mum - mom
- neighbour - neighbor
- organise - organize
- palaeontology - paleontology
- programme - program
- pyjamas - pajamas
- realise - realize
- storey - story (as in level of a building)
- yoghurt - yogurt
A Word from Ninmast
Some of you might have noticed that a very common negative contraction isn't present in this list. That's because this contraction is so misused that we felt it deserved its own aside.
I speak, of course, of the troublesome, degraded and scowled-upon contraction of "am not."
This contraction is the only one that is an appropriate use of "ain't." The old saying, "Ain't ain't a word and I ain't going to use it," is only half correct. Ain't is not appropriately used in the first half, where it is subbed for "isn't," but it is appropriately used for "am not" in the second half of the sentence.
Because of its gross misuse, however, ain't has received a special scorn among writers and has been ostracized as a non-word used only by hillbillies and rednecks, though it shows progressively greater prevalence among gangsters and thugs, as well. For this reason, it is probably better not to use it in formal writing and avoid the stigmatism altogether. If you absolutely have to use it, however, try to remember that it's only appropriate for "am not."
REFERENCES
Special thanks to Ninmast for his time and effort in helping to edit this beast and for approving of this rant in the first place.
Special thanks also goes to a personal British friend of mine for [inadvertently] helping with the list of spelling changes.
Major parts of speech
Punctuation
Other notes on the subject of numbers
Rules for quoting titles
(Alternatively, A Grammar Nazi’s Manifesto.)
… … … … …
INTRODUCTION – A FOREWORD FROM THIS ONE
“This One’s done it now! Creating a basic grammar guide? She must think we’re all idiots! I don’t need a guide to tell me the difference between a noun and an adjective! How dare she underestimate my intelligence?!”
I realize this might be the sentiment among many of you, and I do realize that many of you have writing skills that are advanced far beyond the scope of this guide. However, I feel it would be beneficial for a site dubbed Elite Authors’ Board to have some sort of pool of writing tips available for new members, top posters, and admins alike. Therefore, out of the goodness of my heart, I have gone out of my way and used my precious time to painstakingly create this guide. (Oh, who am I kidding? I loved it! We Grammar Nazis draw satisfaction from this sort of thing, you know.)
I, in no way, claim to have perfect writing skills. Indeed, there are many people on this site who have far greater literary abilities than me. However, I also find it unacceptable that high school students, college students, and even college graduates continue to make such elementary mistakes as switching the words “then” and “than” on a regular basis. There is a difference between making a careless error or typo every once in awhile and in not having appropriate writing abilities for one’s age. I realize that grammar is not given the attention it deserves in English classes after elementary school and that today’s “text-talk” society has become lax about grammatical rules. This is not an excuse for laziness. Even with spell check programs, errors often slip by unnoticed, and what might be a minor mistake for some might completely throw off another’s understanding of a phrase. It is important, therefore, that an author also be an editor.
This guide is not meant to attack any one person in particular or to insult anyone in any way. As I’ve stated, I, myself, make mistakes quite frequently and will also benefit from this guide. This guide was merely created to expand knowledge and improve the quality of RPs and all written works posted here and elsewhere. If I have made any mistakes or left out a section that you feel would be important, please feel free to let me know.
-This One (a.k.a.: Your Friendly Neighborhood Grammar Nazi)
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CONTENTS
I. Important Symbols for this Guide
II. Major Parts of Speech
III. Punctuation
IV. Contractions
V. Pronouns
VI. Ending Sentences with Prepositions
VII. Beginning Sentences with Conjunctions
VIII. Writing Out Numbers
IX. Common Typefaces
X. Homophones
XI. Various Misspellings and Misuses of Words and Phrases
XII. A Word from Ninmast
XIII. References
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IMPORTANT SYMBOLS FOR THIS GUIDE
adj. – adjective
adv. – adverb
conj. – conjunction
int. – interjection
n. – noun
p.n. – pronoun
prep. – preposition
v. – verb
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MAJOR PARTS OF SPEECH
• ADJECTIVE – Adjectives are words that describe nouns. They are the spice of language and include color, number, size, and other physical qualities.
- After travelling down the narrow corridor, the third door on the left opened to reveal a large, sunlit bedroom.
• ADVERB – Adverbs are used like adjectives, but they describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They do not describe nouns. They usually end in the suffix –ly, but not always.
- We were running carelessly through the parking lot.
- He does math well, but he doesn’t do it quickly.
• CONJUNCTION – “Conjunction Junction, what’s your function?” It’s exactly what you’d think it would be. Conjunctions are words that link two statements together.
- She was worried, for it was getting late and her brother had not come home.
- Not only was the food good, but it was also cheap.
• DETERMINER – Determiners specify which noun or nouns are being referred to. There are several types of determiners which include, but are not limited to, articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers.
- Articles – a, an, the
- Demonstratives – this, that, these, those
- Quantifiers – no, few, some, several, many, all, each, every
• INTERJECTION – Wow! What a neat part of speech! Interjections are exclamations used to convey emotion.
- Oh! How wonderful!
- Well, try not to think about it.
• NOUN – Nouns are people, places, objects, and ideas. They form the subjects of sentences. Proper nouns consist of the names of some places, people, companies, and objects. Proper nouns are always capitalized.
- Obama attended the summit in Washington to give his thoughts on the subject.
• PRONOUN – Pronouns are words used to take the place of nouns or other pronouns. Their main purpose is to reduce redundancy.
- She was promoted to CEO of the company and intends to lead it well.
• PREPOSITION – Prepositions tell relative location and order.
- The plane was above a certain altitude and we were able to move about the cabin.
- The plates are on the table.
• VERB – Verbs are words that describe actions of the past, actions in progress, and future actions.
- After hearing the phone, she ran inside to answer it.
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**NOTE: Try to avoid starting sentences with the conjunctions “and”, “or”, and “but”. Though there are situations where it is acceptable, it will most often be incorrect. (See below for further detail.)
**NOTE: Avoid ending sentences with prepositions. (See below for further detail.)
**NOTE: Determiners are technically adjectives since they describe "which one".
**NOTE: The articles "a" and "an" must not be switched. Words that begin with vowel (A, E, I, O, U) sounds must have the article "an". Words that begin with consonant sounds (including the 'yoo' sound as in 'unicorn') must have the article "a".
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PUNCTUATION
When we speak, we take natural rests and pauses and we use the pitch of our voice in certain ways to convey that we have finished a statement, that we are asking a question, etc. Punctuation is the written convention we use to mark these phenomena. Remember…
“Let’s eat Grandma!”
“Let’s eat, Grandma!”
…punctuation saves lives.
• APOSTROPHES [ ’ ] may be used to show possession or for forming contraction.
- Don’t tell me what to do.
- Sam’s dog is a retired racing greyhound.
• COLONS [ : ] are generally used to express cause and effect or to begin lists. They may be used to show the beginning of a direct quote. When dealing with time, colons separate units (hours, minutes, seconds, etc.).
- The reason is simple: The murderer was never in that room.
- I can speak three languages: English, French, and Portuguese.
- The meeting began at exactly 2:45.
• COMMAS [ , ] are used to separate things in a list and to connect two clauses (usually with a conjunction.) They also separate dialogue from non-dialogue parts of a sentence.
- We need to buy flour, eggs and sugar for the cake.
- She failed the test, but she managed to pass the class.
- “My name is Katie,” she said.
• DASHES [ – ] are used as parentheses or “super-commas”. They set apart certain parts of sentences, take the place of the word “to” in a series, and indicate a sudden stop in speech in dialogue.
- All of the companies – GM, Nissan, Toyota, and Mercedes-Benz – suffered.
- The Winter War (November 1939 – March 1940) led to territorial concessions.
- Under his breath, he mumbled, “Son of a— ”
• ELLIPSES [ … ] shows that part of a sentence or thought has been excluded. In dialogue, an ellipsis may represent a long pause or that a sentence has trailed off.
- “Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer … Or to take arms against a sea of troubles and by opposing end them.”
- “I’m not scared, but…”
• EXCLAMATION POINTS [ ! ] are used to intensify emotion in a sentence, usually denoting excitement, shock, and anger. They should be avoided in formal writing.
- Even the mayor was there to help!
- “You’re such an idiot!”
• HYPHENS [ - ] are used in creating compound words, in writing numbers over twenty, and for adding certain prefixes. Hyphens are contained within words, unlike dashes which are between different words.
- Fear the all-seeing eye.
- The painting is one hundred twenty-five years old.
- I enjoy studying the pre-Columbian era.
• INTERROBANGS [ ?! ] show questioning shock or anger. They are almost always used only in dialogue and informal first-person writing.
- “She said what?!”
• PARENTHESES [ () ] contain material that clarifies a sentence. If removed, a sentence should still make sense without the omitted information.
- The lost group (including the guide) was found completely unharmed two days later.
- They believed that these practices would lead to an improvement in health. (These notions have since been disproven.)
• PERIODS [ . ] are used for ending statements and commands and for abbreviating words. In dealing with numerals, a period is known as a decimal point and it separates the ones from the tenths place (or cents from dollars in monetary units).
- I like tennis.
- Finish your meal.
- Mr. Smith is tall.
- Your total is $3.95.
• QUESTION MARKS [ ? ] come at the end of direct questions.
- Where should the decorations be stored?
- “Are you sure?” she asked.
• QUOTATION MARKS [ “” ] are used to denote that a particular part of a sentence is a quote or is being spoken as dialogue. They are also used when referencing certain types of works, such as around song titles.
- “Man, this sucks!” he groaned. “Why can’t the test be later?”
- The professor wrote the word “stalwart” on the board and asked us to define it.
- “Never Gonna Give You Up” is really annoying.
• SEMICOLONS [ ; ] are used in place of conjunctive words to connect two independent clauses and to clarify things in a list.
- I didn’t go to school; I had the flu.
- He’s visited Seattle, Washington; Denver, Colorado; and Tampa, Florida.
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**NOTE: When using apostrophes to form possession, if a noun already ends in an S, it is not necessary to add another S after the apostrophe.
- Alexis’ favorite color is blue.
- This site is called Elite Authors' Board.
**NOTE: Apostrophes are not needed for pluralizing dates and abbreviations.
- OBGYNs are paid well.
- He was born in the 1980s.
**NOTE: Apostrophes are NOT used in creating possessive pronouns when dealing with the pronoun “it”. (See below for further detail.)
- CORRECT - Its seats are leather. (The seats belonging to the car are leather.)
- CORRECT - It’s got leather seats. (It has got leather seats.)
- INCORRECT - It’s seats are leather. (It is seats are leather.)
**NOTE: If a quote is shortened and is not followed by another part of the passage, there will be four dots at the end of the sentence (an ellipsis and a period.)
**NOTE: A comma placed directly before the “and” in a list is known as an Oxford comma and is generally considered incorrect.
**NOTE: If a new paragraph starts in a long passage of dialogue by a single character, do not add quotation marks at the end of the first paragraph. Adding quotation marks here will signify that a new character has begun speaking.
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CONTRACTIONS
A contraction is a shortened form of a word or more than one word using an apostrophe to substitute letters.
• TO BE
- I am = I’m
- You are = you’re
- (s)he is = (s)he’s
- We are = we’re
- They are = they’re
- It is = it’s
- That is = that’s
- What is = what’s
- When is = when’s
- Where is = where’s
- Who is = who’s
- Why is = why’s
- How is = how's
• WILL
- I will = I’ll
- You will = you’ll
- (s)he will = (s)he’ll
- We will = we’ll
- They will = they’ll
- It will = it’ll
- That will = that’ll
- What will = what’ll
- When will = when’ll
- Where will = where’ll
- Who will = who’ll
- Why will = why’ll
• WOULD/HAD
- I would = I’d
- You would = you’d
- (s)he would = (s)he’d
- We would = we’d
- They would = they’d
- It would = it’d
- That would = that’d
- What would = what’d
- When would = when’d
- Where would = where’d
- Who would = who’d
- Why would = why’d
• HAVE/HAS
- I have = I’ve
- You have = you’ve
- (s)he has = (s)he’s
- We have = we’ve
- They have = they’ve
- It has = it’s
- That has = that’s
- What has = what’s
- When has = when’s
- Where has = where’s
- Who has = who’s
- Why has = why’s
- Could have = could’ve
- Might have = might’ve
- Must have = must’ve
- Should have = should’ve
- Would have = would’ve
• NEGATIVES
- Are not = aren’t
- Cannot = can’t
- Could not = couldn’t
- Do not = don’t
- Does not = doesn’t
- Did not = didn’t
- Had not = hadn’t
- Has not = hasn’t
- Have not = haven’t
- Is not = isn’t
- Might not = mightn’t
- Must not = mustn’t
- Should not = shouldn’t
- Was not = wasn’t
- Were not = weren’t
- Will not = won’t
- Would not = wouldn’t
• OTHER
- How did = how'd
- It is = ‘tis (archaic)
- It is not = 'tisn't (archaic)
- It was = ‘twas (archaic)
- Let us = let's
- Madam = ma'am
- Of = o' (normally used in o'clock)
- Them = 'em (informal)
- You all = y’all (informal; should only be used in dialogue)
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**NOTE: (See addendum on the use of “ain’t” from Ninmast.)
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PRONOUNS
Pronouns are words that may take the place of nouns or other pronouns.
• PERSONAL PRONOUNS - SUBJECTIVE
- I own the car.
- You own the car.
- He owns the car.
- She owns the car.
- We own the car.
- You [guys] own the car.
- They own the car.
• PERSONAL PRONOUNS - OBJECTIVE
- The car belongs to me.
- The car belongs to you.
- The car belongs to him.
- The car belongs to her.
- The car belongs to us.
- The car belongs to you [guys].
- The car belongs to them.
• POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS – MODIFYING A NOUN
- My car.
- Your car.
- His car.
- Her car.
- Our car.
- Your car.
- Their car.
- Its seats.
• POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS – USED ALONE
- The car is mine.
- The car is yours.
- The car is his.
- The car is hers.
- The car is ours.
- The car is yours.
- The car is theirs.
- The seats are its.
• INTERROGATIVE
- Who wants to drive?
- I am the one who drives.
- With whom are you riding?
- I am riding with those whom I believe are sober.
- Of the two, which wants to drive?
- Ride with whomever you’d like.
- Whoever is driving needs the map.
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**NOTE: “Whom” and “who” can easily be confused. To remember when each is appropriate, know that “whom” must be able to be replaced by an objective pronoun, and “who” must be able to be replaced by a subjective pronoun.
- With whom are you riding? … I am riding with him.
- Who is driving? … He is driving.
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ENDING SENTENCES WITH PREPOSITIONS
“Who are you riding with?” “What did she die of?” “What are you listening to?” “Where do you come from?” They sound correct, don’t they? In fact, none of the sentences above are correct. “With”, “of”, “to”, and “from” are all prepositions and should not be used as the last word of a sentence. The correct forms of the previous sentences are as follow:
- With whom are you riding?
- Of what did she die?
- To what are you listening?
- From where do you come?
The above statements are all correct, yet it feels strange to arrange them this way. In daily conversation, most of us will use the incorrect forms that have the preposition located at the end simply because it is what we are used to hearing. Because of this, the proper form can feel awkward, making this error one of the trickiest to catch in writing. If you’re not sure how to form the correct sentences, try asking in a way that does not involve prepositions (“How did she die?” rather than “Of what did she die?”).
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BEGINNING SENTENCES WITH CONJUNCTIONS
It is not always incorrect to begin a sentence with a conjunction, but before doing so, two questions should be asked:
1. Would the sentence still hold its meaning without the word?
2. Does the conjunction make sense in relation to the previous sentence?
“And”, “or”, and “but” are possibly the most questioned conjunctions. It is not prohibited to use them at the beginning of sentences, but it can be hard to tell when it is appropriate to use each. Consider using synonyms, like “however” or “conversely” instead of “but”, “otherwise” instead of “or”, and “also” or “furthermore” instead of “and”.
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WRITING OUT NUMBERS
The rules of writing out numbers have never been solidified, it seems, but there are a few that seem to be widely agreed upon:
• Single digit numbers (0 – 9) should always be written out as words.
- I’m taking five classes this semester.
• Numbers greater than twenty should have a hyphen between the tens and ones place
- 39 – thirty-nine
- 78 – seventy-eight
• It is acceptable, but not necessary, to have the word “and” between the hundreds and tens place.
- 115 – one hundred fifteen/one hundred and fifteen
- 999 – nine hundred ninety-nine/nine hundred and ninety-nine
- 1,560 – one thousand five hundred sixty/one thousand five hundred and sixty
- 137,248 – one hundred thirty-seven thousand two hundred forty-eight/one hundred thirty-seven thousand two hundred and forty eight
• Ordinal numbers (first, second, third, etc.) should always be written out in words.
- We came in first place at the race.
- The fifth step is the most important.
• Years should be written in numeric digits without commas between the thousands and hundreds place.
- He was born in 1989.
• Fractions should be hyphenated.
- 1/2 – one-half
- 3 7/10 – three and seven-tenths
• If a sentence contains a number written in words, the rest of the numbers in that sentence should also be written out as words.
- Between the seven of us, there were thirteen cans of soda.
• If there are two numbers in a row and it confuses the meaning of the sentence, the lesser number should be written out in words.
- Ten 20-year-olds are in my Calculus class.
- There are 15 one-pound bags on the table.
• If a sentence begins with a number, it should be written out in words.
- Thirty-three students are in this class.
- Four hundred was my highest score.
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**NOTE: There may be exceptions for these rules depending on the type of writing. For example, it would be acceptable for recipes to contain single digit numerals (1 cup, 5 tbsp, etc.).
**NOTE: Technically, saying “and” between the ones and tens place changes the meaning to a decimal (like saying “point”), though it is not commonly used this way.
- Three hundred fifty-five – 355
- Three hundred and fifty-five – 300.55
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COMMON TYPEFACES
A typeface is a special way of stylizing font to convey certain meanings or feelings. For RP sites like the EAB, there is a more relaxed structure for using these conventions. Some common typefaces include:
- ALL CAPS – When entire sentences are capitalized, it can be assumed that importance is being placed on the information. When dialogue is capitalized, it suggests that the speaker is shouting. This format is very informal.
- Bold – Writing words in bold, heavy, or black font generally serves the same purpose as writing them in all capital letters. It suggests that the importance of the bolded words is being stressed.
- Italics – Italics serve many purposes. A word may be italicized when it is an uncommon foreign word, when it is a title, when its importance is being stressed (as with capitalizing and bolding), or to show that something is being thought rather than spoken aloud.
- Underlining – Underlined words are usually titles.
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**NOTE: Titles that should be italicized include novels, movies, plays, magazines, famous speeches, long poems, art pieces, musical albums, and vessels. Novels may also be underlined. Titles that should be put into quotation marks include songs, short stories, single chapters, articles, and television episodes. Some titles, including religious works and buildings, are only capitalized.
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HOMOPHONES
Words that are spelled differently but sound the same are known as homophones. Some of the words listed below are not true homophones, but they have been listed because they may sound extremely similar in certain English dialects.
• Affect – Effect
- The strong imagery might affect one’s emotions. (v., to influence)
- The effect of the drug was almost immediate. (n., consequence)
• Aisle – Isle – I’ll
- The bride walks down the aisle. (n., row)
- The Isle of Man lies near Britain. (n., island)
- I’ll be back. (v., I will)
• Bare – Bear
- The tree is bare. (adj., empty)
- The bear is covered in fur. / He can’t bear the sadness. (n., animal; v., to carry)
• Brake – Break
- Step on the brake. / Brake the car. (n., stopping mechanism; v., to stop)
- Take a break. / Don’t break your wrist. (n., hiatus; v., to fracture)
• Buy – By – Bye
- He will buy a ticket. (v., to purchase)
- The dog is by the doghouse. (prep., near)
- “Bye, guys!” he said. (int., goodbye)
• Cents – Scents – Sense – Since
- It cost forty cents. (n., monetary unit)
- Beautiful scents were coming from the candle shop. (n., smells)
- That doesn’t make sense. / I lost my sense of smell. (n., intelligence; n., function)
- I’ve been lonely since you left. (prep., from when)
• Cite – Sight – Site
- Cite your sources. (v., to reference)
- My sight isn’t very good. / What a sight to behold! (n., ability to see; n., scene)
- The site was down for two days. / The site was empty. (n., webpage; n., location)
• Die – Dye
- It's not uncommon to die of chronic illness. (v., to stop living)
- The dye stained my hands. / They will dye the shirts blue. (n., pigment; v., to stain)
• Dual – Duel
- She has dual citizenship in both America and Canada. (adj., double)
- They fought in a duel. / They will duel. (n., battle; v., to fight)
• Hoarse – Horse
- His voice was hoarse. (adj., raspy)
- The horse is black. (n., pony)
• Lead – Led
- She’s got a lead pencil. / It’s made of lead. (adj., made of lead; n., metal)
- He led them away from the fire. (v., to guide)
• Pair – Pare – Pear
- She bought a pair of boots. / I will pair them by color. (n., two of something; v., to group into twos)
- Use the knife to pare the potato. (v., to peel)
- The pear is juicy. (n., fruit)
• Patience – Patients
- One must have patience. (n., persistence)
- The doctor does his best to keep his patients safe. (n., sick people)
• Peak – Peek – Pique
- It is very cold at the peak of the mountain. (n., summit)
- The cats peek around the corner. (v., to glance)
- Documentaries pique my interest. (v., to stimulate)
• Principal – Principle
- Sugar is the principal ingredient. / The principal gave me detention. (adj., main; n., director)
- Respect is a good principle to have. (n., code)
• Rain – Reign – Rein
- The rain is cold. / It will rain on Tuesday. (n., water droplets; v., to precipitate water)
- The king’s reign ended in 1786. / The new king would reign for thirty years. (n., period of rule; v., to preside over)
- Tug the rein to turn the horse. / Rein in your emotions. (n., harness; v., to keep in check)
• Secede – Succeed
- The South seceded from the rest of the States. (v., to break away)
- He’s the type to succeed at everything. (v., to do well)
• Than – Then
- There are more females than males. (conj., in comparison to)
- I’ll meet you then. / Eat your lunch, and then return the movie. (adv., at that time; adv., next)
• Their – There – They’re
- Their car is blue. (p.n., belonging to them)
- We live over there now. (p.n., that place)
- They’re going to France. (v., they are)
• To – Too – Two
- Walk to the park. / Give the paper to her. (prep., toward; prep., for)
- This is too much work. / I see it, too. (adv., excessively; adv., also)
- There are two birds on the wire. (adj., a pair of something)
• Vain – Vein
- She’s so vain that she won’t admit her error. (adj., arrogant)
- He was so angry that a vein bulged from his neck. (n., capillary)
• Vial – Vile
- The vial contained a magical potion. (n., bottle)
- Superman could not let the vile scheme take place. (adj., evil)
• Want - Wont - Won't
- I want to go to the movies. (v., to desire)
- Don't put off your work, as you're so wont to do. (adj., accustomed)
- I won't go with them. (v., will not)
• Who’s – Whose
- Who’s going to drive? (v., who is)
- The winner is Paul, whose skill was a huge advantage. / Whose jacket is this? (p.n., possessive of who)
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VARIOUS MISSPELLINGS AND MISUSES OF WORDS AND PHRASES
Below is a collection of words and phrases I have seen used incorrectly in the EAB and elsewhere.
- INCORRECT - CORRECT
- alot - a lot
- all of the sudden - all of a sudden
- allready - already
- allright - alright
- Chow! [Bye!] - Ciao! (Italian; “Hi” or “Bye”)
- deers - deer
- [it] dose not - [it] does not
- eachother - each other
- extasy - ecstasy
- greatful - grateful
- heighth - height
- judgement - judgment
- Kapeesh? - Capisci? (Italian; “understand”)
- noone - no one
- sopost to - supposed to
- stomache - stomach
- theirself - oneself, itself, himself, herself, themselves
- theirselves - (see above)
- themself - (see above)
- untill - until
- upsidedown - upside down
- Vwalah!/Walah! - Voila! (French; “here it is”)
- ya’ll - y’all
...
**NOTE: The case may arise where a word has multiple correct spellings. This is usually a matter of difference between British and American English. Oftentimes, it is the ending of a word that is changed (--re becomes --er, --ise becomes --ize, etc.)
- BRITISH - AMERICAN
- aeroplane - airplane
- aluminium - aluminum
- anaemia - anemia
- analyse - analyze
- centre - center
- cheque - check
- colour - color
- disc - disk
- favourite - favorite
- flavour - flavor
- grey - gray
- honour - honor
- humour - humor
- kilometre - kilometer
- liquorice - licorice
- litre - liter
- mould - mold
- moustache - mustache
- mum - mom
- neighbour - neighbor
- organise - organize
- palaeontology - paleontology
- programme - program
- pyjamas - pajamas
- realise - realize
- storey - story (as in level of a building)
- yoghurt - yogurt
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A Word from Ninmast
Some of you might have noticed that a very common negative contraction isn't present in this list. That's because this contraction is so misused that we felt it deserved its own aside.
I speak, of course, of the troublesome, degraded and scowled-upon contraction of "am not."
This contraction is the only one that is an appropriate use of "ain't." The old saying, "Ain't ain't a word and I ain't going to use it," is only half correct. Ain't is not appropriately used in the first half, where it is subbed for "isn't," but it is appropriately used for "am not" in the second half of the sentence.
Because of its gross misuse, however, ain't has received a special scorn among writers and has been ostracized as a non-word used only by hillbillies and rednecks, though it shows progressively greater prevalence among gangsters and thugs, as well. For this reason, it is probably better not to use it in formal writing and avoid the stigmatism altogether. If you absolutely have to use it, however, try to remember that it's only appropriate for "am not."
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REFERENCES
Special thanks to Ninmast for his time and effort in helping to edit this beast and for approving of this rant in the first place.
Special thanks also goes to a personal British friend of mine for [inadvertently] helping with the list of spelling changes.
Major parts of speech
Punctuation
Other notes on the subject of numbers
Rules for quoting titles